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| Mantidactylus luteus Methuen & Hewitt, 1913 |
Mantidactylus luteus is a species of frog in the Mantellidae family. It is endemic to Madagascar. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.
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Disney’s CyberStar was a children’s television programme that aired on The Disney Channel in the UK in 1996. It showed cartoons such as Disney’s Gargoyles. It had numerous human hosts, as well as two alien characters called Creech and Finder. The show was not successful and only ran for a short time.
Mark Heap (later of Spaced and Green Wing) starred as ‘Billy’ one of the human hosts.
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Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%27s_CyberStar”
Categories: Disney stubs | Children’s television series stubs | Disney Channel shows | 1996 television series debuts | 1996 television series endingsHidden categories: Orphaned articles from March 2008 | All orphaned articles | Articles lacking sources from March 2008 | All articles lacking sources
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| Born | September 30, 1962 Kolkata, India |
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| Spouse(s) | Debashree Roy Aparna Arpita Pal(present) |
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Prasenjit Chatterjee (Bengali: ????????? ???????????? Proshenjit Chô??opaddhae)( Born : September 30, 1962), professionally known as Proshenjit, is a Bengali film actor.His fans affectionately called him Bumba Da.
Prosenjit is the only star in the Bengali cinema horizon after Uttam Kumar to have been at the top for nearly two decades. No Bengali hero has been able to sustain himself in the top position for so long and so well. His films still draw full houses in Kolkata and much more, in the villages and districts of West Bengal. The intellectuals do not consider him star material at all. But they cannot ignore him now because he is in demand among off-mainstream filmmakers as well. The only son of Biswajeet, the only actor from Tollygunge who carved a niche in Hindi cinema in the 1960s, Prosenjit made his debut when he was just four years old in his father’s production Chhotto Jignasa (The Tiny Question.) The film was a big hit and little Boomba’s fresh and natural performance warmed the cockles of every heart in house-full theatres way back in 1967. It was back to school after that. In between, his parents split, Biswajeet settled in Mumbai and at age of Sixteen, Prosenjit was left with the responsibility of his family consisting of his mother and little sister Pallavi Chatterjee, now an actress in her own right.
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He is the son of film actor Biswajeet and debuted as a child artist in the film Chhotto Jignasa (A Little Question), directed by his father.
Prasenjit has been the leading star of Bengali (West Bengal) commercial cinema for the past two decades.
Prasenjit lives in Kolkata with his wife, former actress Arpita Pal and their son Trishanjit.
He has had two previous failed marriages. His first wife was Debashree Roy.
He made his debut as hero in Duti Pata (1983), a teenage romance along the lines of Bobby. The film filled a vacuum in Bengali cinema through its look and mounting, distanced from stereotypical Bangla films of the time. It turned out to be a super-duper hit, and overnight, Prosenjit found stardom thrust on him. He started as a stage actor, in a commercial theatre house at a salary of Rs 500 a month with performances on Thursdays, Saturdays and Sundays. On other days of the week, he went to various studios, met producers and directors in search of an opening in films. Throughout these days of struggle, he had the support and encouragement of his late mother. It was primarily through his efforts that Subhash Chandra Goel of Zee TV agreed to launch the Bengali television channel, Zee Bangla. In 1994-95, Prosenjeet concentrated on building the new generation television industry and also acted in some television serials himself. The Doordarshan monopoly was broken, and thanks to Prosenjit’s efforts, satellite channels spawned a host of new actors, directors, anchors, music directors and technicians.
He considers the character of Koushik, the husband in Rituparno Ghosh’s Dosar (2006) as his most challenging role. “The story begins with Koushik cheating on his wife, spending a weekend with another woman and then running into a near-fatal accident. He sustains severe injuries and most of the time, I was horizontal and had to emote only through my eyes. None of my body parts moved except my eyes. It was extremely exhausting in a physical sense. It was also challenging because the Indian audience does not generally accept such characters.”
His favourite film in his entire career till now is Daay Dayitwa directed by Haranath Chakrabarty. “It is special for me because the role I did was initially written for Uttam Kumar though the director was different. Then Victor Banerjee was chosen for the same role but the project got shelved and twice removed, it came to me with Haranath directing me,” says Prosenjit.
Omor Shongi (1987) opposite Vijayeta Pandit, Apon Amaar Apon(1990) directed by Tarun Majumdar and Buddhadeb Dasgupta’s Ami, Yaseen Aar Amaar Madhubala (2007) are the three outstanding films of his career. The song Chirodini Aami Je Tomaar from Omor Shongi remains a hot favourite among lovers of Bengali music. In fact, Omor Shongi was his turning point film. Prosenjit did not have to look back after that. Till this film established him as the numero uno of Bengali mainstream cinema, Prosenjit could not afford to pick and choose either roles, or banners or films. “I had to prove that I was sincere and dedicated, that I meant work. And this not being able to pick and choose led me to my first big hit, Omor Shongi,” he recalls. “It was a journey of striving born of a desperation to prove to my audience, producers, directors, co-actors that I can deliver so please have faith in me. I did not pick or choose roles. I did not reject an offer even when I knew it would not do me any good. Omor Shongi changed all that once and for all. A musical romance, it was the biggest box office hit of the time,” he adds.
Since Omor Shongi, it has been one long struggle to sustain the position that took years of struggle to reach. According to Prosenjit, “an actor passes through several phases in his career. The first phase is the struggle to get work. The second is to keep working. The third is to settle down to some kind of stability in terms of career, work, and assignments. The last phase is the most difficult – to hold your position there and then withdraw to concentrate on the holistic approach towards each film you work in. It is a world where nothing exists for me apart from my film, the posters of the film, the audience in the theatres, the box office collections of the film. I am fiercely protective of this world of mine and will not tolerate any harm done to it by any one or anything.”
Now let us take a look at the amazing statistics called Prosenjit. Over the past 25 years, his roster as hero lists around 270 films with an average hit rate of 40% in the past ten years. He has acted with 50 leading ladies. He has won state and local awards left, right and centre though the National Award still eludes him. On the other hand, he has done assignments in good films under the directorial baton of Rituparno Ghosh and Buddhadeb Dasgupta. He will soon be seen sharing screen space with Amitabh Bachchan in his first English language film, The Last Lear directed by Rituparno Ghosh. Till June 2003, Prosenjit had starred in 41 out of a total number of 51 films directed by Swapan Saha as the hero. Around 83% of these films were hits. He had 22 releases in just one year – 2004. “The burden was very heavy. But I had no choice because every single film was a big hit. My producers and directors were waiting for me to deliver. Today, thankfully, with the entry of a few young men like Jeet and Jishu Sengupta and Mithun-da’s re-entry as hero, I have been able to cut down on my assignments and concentrate on fewer roles. I have done around 40/50 films each with five or six directors over my entire career. So, we have a rapport that helps either of us to understand precisely what the other person expects,” he elaborates. He has acted under the directorial baton of any and every director in Bengali cinema one can recall. Tapan Sinha, Tarun Majumdar, Prabhat Roy, Haranath Chakrabarty, Swapan Saha, Sujit Guha, Rituparno Ghosh and Buddhadeb Dasgupta; Prosenjeet has acted under the directorial batons of all of them. He knows that serious filmmakers like Aparna Sen, Gautam Ghosh and Anjan Das will also call him one day for their films.
Among the 50 odd leading ladies he has acted with, he rates Debashree Roy, the woman he was once married to, as the best. “She is outstanding and completely dedicated to her work. I have worked with her in more than 25 films. It is a pleasure to be cast opposite her in any film and I would welcome the opportunity any time she agrees to act with me. Many talented young women faded away into oblivion, constantly throwing up the challenge of creating new and talented leading ladies in the Bengali film industry.” Says Prosenjit. Satabdi Roy takes top place as his heroine, having acted with him in more than 50 films. He has done 35 films with Rachana Banerjee, 50 with Rituparna Sengupta, around 16 with Indrani Haldar and four with his wife Arpita.
Prosenjit did make an attempt to make it in Bollywood. He played the role of Mumtaz’s son in her disastrous comeback film Aandhiyaan in 1989. The film was directed by David Dhawan. The story revolved around Mumtaz and Shatrughan Sinha who were married but had split because of Sinha’s political aspirations where his ordinary wife would be a disturbing factor. The son grows up to take revenge and finally unite his parents. The film disappeared without a trace. But this did not stop Prosenjit from playing the hero in the Mehul Kumar-directed Meet Mere Man Ke (1991). This film too, was a disaster too and the intelligent Prosenjit came back to his roots, choosing to become numero uno in his home state rather than becoming a bit-star doing secondary roles in Bollywood films.
“I know nothing except cinema. The entire film industry in my home state is my concern, my responsibility. I am always thinking of how and from where more money can flow into it; how it can be bettered in every way. I am not saying that I consider myself an all-time CEO of the industry. It is more like a senior staffer who has put in many years of service in his company feels a sense of belonging, a sense of responsibility for that company. I know that my very survival depends on the survival of the Bengali film industry. It is as simple as that,” says this actor who does not bother about the numerous critics and intellectuals who do not like his acting at all. He is clearly a director’s actor as his portrayals in the films of Tapan Sinha, Rituparno Ghosh and Buddhadeb Dasgupta go to prove. His portrayal of the failed artist-turned-alcoholic whose marriage is on the verge of breaking down in Rituparno Ghosh’s Utsab is a revelation. His low-profile portrayal of a young boy who runs a bookshop in a small town in Tapan Sinha’s Aatanka is another case in point. His production company, Ideas, is actively engaged in film production. “Mainstream Bangla films like Refugee, Sangharsh, Kali Shankar have contributed to the making of Prosenjit, the star, I find it easier to identify with characters I play in off-screen films because they are closer to reality. So, there’s no way I can make a choice between the two. I have decided to concentrate on lesser films by taking on five or six mainstream assignments and two off-mainstream films every year from now on so that I can have a roster of choice films,” he says.
For Prosenjit, acting is a holistic experience. Acting comprises everything that goes into the character one is portraying – the costume, the make-up, the dialogue, the fashion, the style, the body language, the relationships with the other characters, everything. All these keep changing from time to time, from film to film. He personally engages himself in every single department of acting. His dream is to break the narrow walls of regional Bengali cinema and push its borders to reach international cinema. He is also conscious of not allowing to get stereotyped in all the masala roles he does in masala films. So, he tries as best as he can, to change his look for every single film. He took on a pair of weird glasses for the role of a marginalized and humiliated stepson in a joint family in Swapno. In Sangharsha, he had seven different get-ups. In Kali-Shankar, he went to Numaish, a parlour in south Kolkata, where they suggested that he colour his hair. They also insisted on a French beard of the same colour. Once, he experimented with watermelon, butter and jelly. He mixed the three to get the perfect wound on his face and body. At Cannes where he went for the screening of Dosar, some of the international regulars asked him about Mahendra look in Chokher Bali where he back brushed his hair, smoked a pipe and wore the ornate suit Indian aristocrats of the time wore. For The Last Lear, in which he plays himself for the first time, Prosenjit has acquired a rusty brown tan and wears a white, full-sleeved shirt over tight denims, boots and dark glasses.
Never mind those arty Bengalis who stick their noses up at the very mention of his name, Prosenjit has evolved into an institution unto himself in Bengali cinema. The word ‘hero’ in this instance, transcends the borders of the screen, the cinema theatre and the Bengali audience to embrace everything contemporary mainstream Bengali cinema stands for – pulling in the mass audience, crossing the rural-urban divide to bring the rural and suburban masses into the framework of viewership, popularity, fashion statements among young men who wish to emulate their icon. Prosenjit personifies all this, and more.
He is a Most Successful Bengali Actor in Tollywood after Uttam Kumar.
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Look up Motivation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
Motivation is the set of reasons that determines one to engage in a particular behavior. The term is generally used for human motivation but, theoretically, it can be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation. According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism, or morality, or overcoming mortality.
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A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit. Motivation comes from two things: you, and other people. There is extrinsic motivation, which comes from others, and intrinsic motivation, which comes from within you.
Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external to the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to the person; for example, satisfaction or a feeling of accomplishment.
Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation based on what an individual thinks ought to be done. For instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.
A reinforcer is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment.
Intrinsic motivation occurs when people engage in an activity, such as a hobby, without obvious external incentives. This form of motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s. Research has found that it is usually associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by students. Intrinsic motivation has been explained by Fritz Heider’s attribution theory, Bandura’s work on self-efficacy, and Ryan and Deci’s cognitive evaluation theory. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:
In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons for their participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship or ‘giving back’. In work environments, money may provide a more powerful extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace.
In terms of sports, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from inside the performer. That is, the athlete competes for the love of the sport.
Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the most obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also common extrinsic motivations.
In sports, the crowd may cheer the performer on, and this motivates him or her to do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is often extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.
Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to overjustification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation.
The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Yale School of Management professor Victor Vroom’s “expectancy theory” provides an account of when people will decide whether to exert self control to pursue a particular goal.
Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behaviour that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behaviour. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.
By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.
There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept that we have certain biological needs, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive increases as it is not satisfied. Then as we satisfy that drive by fulfilling its desire, such as eating, the drive’s strength is reduced. It is based on the theories of Freud and the idea of feedback control systems, such as a thermostat.
There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of the Drive Reduction Theory open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how Secondary Reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money does not satisfy any biological or psychological need but reduces drive on a regular basis through a pay check second-order conditioning. Secondly, if the drive reduction theory held true we would not be able to explain how a hungry human being can prepare a meal without eating the food before they finished cooking it.
However, when comparing this to a real life situation such as preparing food, one does get hungrier as the food is being made (drive increases), and after the food has been consumed the drive decreases. The only reason the food does not get eaten before is the human element of restraint and has nothing to do with drive theory. Also, the food will either be nicer after it is cooked, or it won’t be edible at all before it is cooked.
Suggested by Leon Festinger, this occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may have been preferable.
Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and a behavior are in conflict. A person may wish to be healthy, believes smoking is bad for one’s health, and yet continues to smoke.
David McClelland’s achievement motivation theory envisions that a person has a need for three things, but differs in degrees to which the various needs influence their behavior: Need for achievement, Need for power, and Need for affiliation.
Holland Codes are used in the assessment of interests as in Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI; Holland, 1985). One way to look at interests is that if a person has a strong interest in one of the 6 Holland areas, then obtaining outcomes in that area will be strongly reinforcing relative to obtaining outcomes in areas of weak interest.
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs theory is the one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation.
The theory can be summarized as follows:
The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to most complex (highest, latest) are as follows:
Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory, aka intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, lead to dissatisfaction.
He distinguished between:
The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not make you healthier, but absence can cause health deterioration.
The theory is sometimes called the “Motivator-Hygiene Theory.”
Clayton Alderfer, expanding on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory (existence, relatedness and growth). Physiological and safety, the lower order needs, are placed in the existence category, while love and self esteem needs are placed in the relatedness category. The growth category contains our self-actualization and self-esteem needs.
Self-determination theory, developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on the importance of intrinsic motivation in driving human behavior. Like Maslow’s hierarchical theory and others that built on it, SDT posits a natural tendency toward growth and development. Unlike these other theories, however, SDT does not include any sort of “autopilot” for achievement, but instead requires active encouragement from the environment. The primary factors that encourage motivation and development are autonomy, competence feedback, and relatedness.
The latest approach in Achievement Motivation is an integrative perspective as lined out in the “Onion-Ring-Model of Achievement Motivation” by Heinz Schuler, George C. Thornton III, Andreas Frintrup and Rose Mueller-Hanson. It is based on the premise that performance motivation results from way broad components of personality are directed towards performance. As a result it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance motivation. Especially it integrates formerly separated approaches as Need for Achievement with e.g. social motives like Dominance. The Achievement Motivation Inventory AMI (Schuler, Thornton, Frintrup & Mueller-Hanson, 2003) is based on this theory and assesses three factors (17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success.for example…
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal’s efficiency is affected by three features; proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal. For further reading, see Locke and Latham (2002).
Douglas Vermeeren, has done extensive research into why many people fail to get to their goals. The failure is directly attributed to motivating factors. Vermeeren states that unless an individual can clearly identify their motivating factor or their significant and meaningful reasons why they wish to attain the goal, they will never have the power to attain it.
Some psychologists believe that a significant portion of human behavior is energized and directed by unconscious motives. According to Maslow: “Psychoanalysis has often demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underlies it need not be at all direct .” In other words, stated motives do not always match those inferred by skilled observers. For example, it is possible that a person can be accident-prone because he has an unconscious desire to hurt himself and not because he is careless or ignorant of the safety rules. Similarly, some overweight people are not really hungry for food but for attention and love. Eating is merely a defensive reaction to lack of attention. Some workers damage more equipment than others because they harbor unconscious feelings of aggression toward authority figures.
Psychotherapists point out that some behavior is so automatic that the reasons for it are not available in the individual’s conscious mind. Compulsive cigarette smoking is an example. Sometimes maintaining self-esteem is so important and the motive for an activity is so threatening that it is simply not recognized and, in fact, may be disguised or repressed. Rationalization, or “explaining away”, is one such disguise, or defense mechanism, as it is called. Another is projecting or attributing one’s own faults to others. “I feel I am to blame”, becomes “It is her fault; she is selfish”. Repression of powerful but socially unacceptable motives may result in outward behavior that is the opposite of the repressed tendencies. An example of this would be the employee who hates his boss but overworks himself on the job to show that he holds him in high regard.
Unconscious motives add to the hazards of interpreting human behavior and, to the extent that they are present, complicate the life of the administrator. On the other hand, knowledge that unconscious motives exist can lead to a more careful assessment of behavioral problems. Although few contemporary psychologists deny the existence of unconscious factors, many do believe that these are activated only in times of anxiety and stress, and that in the ordinary course of events, human behavior — from the subject’s point of view — is rationally purposeful.
The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation.
Modern imaging has provided solid empirical support for the psychological theory that emotional programming is largely defined in childhood. Harold Chugani, Medical Director of the PET Clinic at the Children’s Hospital of Michigan and professor of pediatrics, neurology and radiology at Wayne State University School of Medicine, has found that children’s brains are much more capable of consuming new information (linked to emotions) than those of adults. Brain activity in cortical regions is about twice as high in children as in adults from the third to the ninth year of life. After that period, it declines constantly to the low levels of adulthood. Brain volume, on the other hand, is already at about 95% of adult levels in the ninth year of life.
Besides the very direct approaches to motivation, beginning in early life, there are solutions which are more abstract but perhaps nevertheless more practical for self-motivation. Virtually every motivation guidebook includes at least one chapter about the proper organization of one’s tasks and goals. It is usually suggested that it is critical to maintain a list of tasks, with a distinction between those which are completed and those which are not, thereby moving some of the required motivation for their completion from the tasks themselves into a “meta-task”, namely the processing of the tasks in the task list, which can become a routine. The viewing of the list of completed tasks may also be considered motivating, as it can create a satisfying sense of accomplishment.
Most electronic to-do lists have this basic functionality, although the distinction between completed and non-completed tasks is not always clear (completed tasks are sometimes simply deleted, instead of kept in a separate list).
Other forms of information organization may also be motivational, such as the use of mind maps to organize one’s ideas, and thereby “train” the neural network that is the human brain to focus on the given task. Simpler forms of idea notation such as simple bullet-point style lists may also be sufficient, or even more useful to less visually oriented persons..
Some authors, especially in the transhumanist movement, have suggested the use of “smart drugs”, also known as nootropics, as “motivation-enhancers”. The effects of many of these drugs on the brain are emphatically not well understood, and their legal status often makes open experimentation difficult.
Converging neurobiological evidence also supports the idea that addictive drugs such as cocaine, nicotine, alcohol, and heroin act on brain systems underlying motivation for natural rewards, such as the mesolimbic dopamine system. Normally, these brain systems serve to guide us toward fitness-enhancing rewards (food, water, sex, etc.), but they can be co-opted by repeated use of drugs of abuse, causing addicts to excessively pursue drug rewards. Therefore, drugs can hijack brain systems underlying other motivations, causing the almost singular pursuit of drugs characteristic of addiction.
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Motivation is of particular interest to Educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.
Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and their behavior towards subject matter (Ormrod, 2003). It can:
Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.
There are two kinds of motivation:
Note also that there is already questioning and expansion about this dichotomy on motivation, e.g., Self-Determination Theory.
Motivation has been found to be a pivotal area in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as in Pivotal Response Therapy.
Motivation is also an important element in the concept of Andragogy (what motivates the adult learner).
At lower levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, such as Physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg’s two-factor model of motivation). At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation and Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.
Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered stronger motivators than money.
The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side. Motivation is a powerful tool in the work environment that can lead to employees working at their most efficient levels of production.
The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study at Vauxhall Motors’ UK manufacturing plant. This introduced the concept of orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations: instrumental (where work is a means to an end), bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic (which prioritises group loyalty).
Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg included Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke’s Goal Theory and Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory. These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to be motivated by different factors at different times.
According to the system of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, a worker’s motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. In essence scientific management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.
In contrast, David McClelland believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for money– in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as its first motto “To make everyone productive, happy, and free.” For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person’s life with their fundamental motivations.
Elton Mayo found out that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups. Mayo named the model the Hawthorne effect. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts at work situations for motivating employees.
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| Ladder of Years | |
 First edition cover |
|
| Author | Anne Tyler |
|---|---|
| Country | United States |
| Language | English |
| Genre(s) | Novel |
| Publisher | Knopf |
| Publication date | 1995 |
| Media type | Print (Hardback & Paperback) |
| Pages | 325 pp |
| ISBN | ISBN 0679441557 |
Ladder of Years is a 1995 novel by Anne Tyler.
Reading of the Confessio Augustana by Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Augsburg, 1530
The Diet of Augsburg were the meetings of the Reichstag of the Holy Roman Empire in the German city of Augsburg. There were many such sessions, but the three meetings during the Reformation and the ensuing religious wars between the Catholic emperor Charles V and the Protestant Schmalkaldic League in the early 16th century are especially noteworthy.
The session of 1530 attempted to calm rising tensions over Protestantism. After the Edict of Worms had condemned Lutheranism, problems of enforcement emerged during the 1520s, as Charles V’s wars against France and commitments in the rest of his empire prevented him from focusing on German religious problems. In 1529, however, he signed a successful peace treaty with France. In February 1530, Charles was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII in Bologna. After these successes, Charles aimed to assert his control over what he saw as German religious heresies. It brought forth the Confessio Augustana, a central document of Lutheranism that was presented to emperor Charles V.
After his victory over the Schmalkaldic League, Charles V convened the session of 1547/48 (geharnischter Reichstag), where the Augsburg Interim was proclaimed. This attempt to give Catholicism the priority was rejected by many princes, though, and a resolution of the confessional tensions was only achieved at the session on 1555, where the Peace of Augsburg was concluded. The treaty acknowledged the Confessio Augustana and codified the cuius regio, eius religio principle, which gave each prince the power to decide the religion of his subjects.
The decrees of the Council of Trent were acknowledged in Italy, Portugal, Poland, and by the Catholic princes of Germany at the Diet of Augsburg held in 1566.
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Cameraria may refer to either of two genera of life forms:
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Penafiel (pron. IPA: or ) is a Portuguese city of the Porto district in the North of the country.
The city of Penafiel itself had, as of 2001, a population of 9,343. The municipal areas surrounding Penafiel City have a population of 71,801 and are made up of 38 parishes, comprising 212,82 km². The municipality of Penafiel is located east of Oporto (Porto) in Tãmega subregion and in Vale do Sousa (Sousa Valley) Urban Community, of which is one of the main cities.
The 38 parishes of Penafiel are:
| Maków County Powiat makowski |
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| — County — | |||
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 Location within the voivodeship |
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 Division into gminas |
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| Coordinates(Maków Mazowiecki): | |||
| Country |  Poland |
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|---|---|---|---|
| Voivodeship | Masovian | ||
| Seat | Maków Mazowiecki | ||
| Gminas |
Total 10 (incl. 1 urban) |
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| Area | |||
| - Total | 1,064.56 km2 (411 sq mi) | ||
| Population (2006) | |||
| - Total | 46,474 | ||
| - Density | 43.7/km2 (113.1/sq mi) | ||
| - Urban | 12,541 | ||
| - Rural | 33,933 | ||
| Car plates | WMA | ||
| Website: http://www.powiat-makowski.pl | |||
Maków County (Polish: powiat makowski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Masovian Voivodeship, east-central Poland. It was created on January 1, 1999 as a result of the Local Government Reorganization Act of 1998. Its administrative seat and largest town is Maków Mazowiecki, which lies 73 kilometres (45 mi) north of Warsaw. The only other town in the county is Ró?an, lying 20 km (12 mi) east of Maków Mazowiecki.
The county covers an area of 1,064.56 square kilometres (411.0 sq mi). As of 2006 its total population is 46,474, out of which the population of Maków Mazowiecki is 9,880, that of Ró?an is 2,661, and the rural population is 33,933.
Maków County is bordered by Ostro??ka County to the north-east, Wyszków County to the south-east, Pu?tusk County to the south, Ciechanów County to the west and Przasnysz County to the north-west.
The county is subdivided into 10 gminas (one urban, one urban-rural and eight rural). These are listed in t
